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[sc0tty101]

Albert Speer

Summary of major events in Speers life.

Albert Speer – Architect of the Third Reich

Albert Speer served as Hitler’s chief architect between 1933 and 1945, and is the centre of many heated discussions between historians regarding the true motivations behind the role he played in World War II. However, whatever his reasons, Albert Speer had a distinguished career in the Nazi party, and was considered a close to friend to Adolph Hitler himself. It was Albert Speer who Hitler would entrust with to construct the buildings that would glorify the “One Thousand Year Reich”.

Albert Speer was born in Mannheim, Austria, on the 19th of March, 1905. He studied in many schools in and around Germany, when in 1927 he achieved his architectural license. It was in December 1930 that Speer was witness to one of Hitler’s speeches, and it was here that he had his first taste of the Nazi idealism. Like many others, Speer was taken aback by the strength and certainty with which Hitler spoke, in his own words he was “captured by the magic of Hitler’s voice”, and three months after the student rally, he joined the National Socialist party, where he worked as an architect on minor commissions for the party. In 1932 he was asked by Joseph Goebbels to redesign his official residence, which he did with a skill and efficiency that caught the attention of Adolph Hitler This marked the beginning of a long and active relationship between the two men.

Speer quickly became known among the Nazi party and its members. Through close contact and work relations, Speer and Hitler quickly developed trust within their relationship, which led to Speer’s introduction to Hitler’s inner circle. This inner circle was highly sought after, as it was these close friends that Hitler discussed many of his ideas with.

In 1934, he was given two tasks to complete. The first was to design a permanent site for the Nuremberg rallies. This became one of his most famous designs, and was seen in Leni Riefenstahl’s propaganda masterpiece, Triumph of the Will. The grounds would hold over two hundred and forty thousand people, and in a 1934 Party rally, Speer surrounded the site with one hundred and fifty anti-aircraft searchlights. This effect was dubbed a “cathedral of light” by British Ambassador Sir Neville Henderson and was used on several occasions. It can be seen on this Nazi postcard printed shortly after another rally in 1937.

His second task was to design and create a permanent site for the Party headquarters.

Both of these were carried out in a professional, methodical way that appealed and impressed Hitler and brought further respect to his name. Speer began to spend long periods of time with Hitler discussing projects and models which would be used in his Architecture. Speer was soon an established, perhaps even the favorite member of Hitler’s inner circle of advisors.

In 1937 Speer became the subsection leader of the realm propaganda, and the Inspector General of the construction of the Reich’s capital. This meant he was part of the department that was responsible for the evictions of the Jewish and marked Speers first participation in the violence carried out against the Jews during Hitler’s reign. In the same year he was also responsible for the design of the German pavilion at the World Fair held in Paris, France.

Many plans were made to rebuild Berlin. Great and large buildings that would mark Germany as the greatest nation in the world. After war broke out in 1939, many of these plans were abandoned as Germany and its people embraced the ‘Total War’ that would last for the next 5 years.

Speer was selected as a representative of the electoral district of Berlin West in 1941, thus increasing his decision making power within the Nazi Party. 1941 was also the year deportation of the Jewish people begun from Germany. With his newfound political commitments, Speer didn’t totally push aside his love for architecture, as he provided new premises for the Nazi Party, and quickly became Hitler’s right hand man.

In February 1942, Fritz Todt, the Minister of Armaments was killed in a plane crash, and Speer was appointed his in his position. With Todt’s job came much more freedom over the districts with the aim of organizing armaments. He demeaned an immediate increase in production, and he accepted the use of concentration camp labor to do it. Speer had indirect control over the German economy, and as a result production had doubled by 1942 and continued to rise through his career. His work was rewarded in 1943 where he received the Fritz Totd ring of honor.

His work as minister continued in 1944 where he created a series of underground factories which exceeded over 20km in length and were worked by over 600,000 slaves. This event is important to note in Speers career as it was his factors where nearly 1 in 3 of the workers died as a direct result of the work he ordered. It is this event and others that would incriminate him at the Nuremburg trials that would follow the war.

Later that year, Hitler introduced his Scorched earth policy (The destroying of occupied enemy land to prevent further use out of it). Speer disagreed with this policy, and further arguments like this eventuated in the deterioration of the relationship between the two men. By 1945, Speer and Hitler were on very rough terms, and historians later learn that Speer was behind an attempt to assassinate him. This was unsuccessful, and soon after, Germany were defeated and Speer imprisoned.

Albert Speer is seen by many as Hitler’s puppet before, and during the war. Carrying out the will of the Nazi dictator. He was an accomplished architect, and it was he who many believe Germany were able to keep fighting for two more years. He was sentenced to prison during the Nuremburg trials, but through it all he pleased he was unaware of the ‘Final Solution” that was occurring around him. He died in 1981.

 

[sc0tty101]

Assesing his role in the nazi war machine.

Although many historians argue over the true motivations behind Albert Speers role in the Nazi War machine, none disagree with the point that Albert Speer played a prominent and important role as the minister of armaments and production for Germany. He was seen by many during the Nuremberg war trials to be the least corrupt, and the most able among Hitler’s inner circle. He was also unique in the fact that he was only one that stood trial to accept responsibility for the actions of the regime; however he claimed he had not known of the fate of the Jews until after the war.

As an architect, Hitler was well known in and around Germany. His works cried out to the world in a manner that would one day glorify the “Third Reich” forever. His architecture was a tool for pro-war propaganda. His buildings and worked gained recognition among other nations of the world. However, the biggest role he would make in the war would come when he became Minister of Armaments in 1942 that his ability to lead and organize would help the German army in its fight against the Allies. From 1942 to the end of the war, Speer was one of the major planners of the German war economy. He was intelligent enough to overcome many of the problems that Hitler was facing with the home front, and due to his close relationship with Hitler, he was able to communicate with him first hand and organize his work around there discussions.

In 1942, Speer set up the Central Planning Board to control the allocation of raw materials to industry. It was here that Speer was faced with one of his first major problems as Armament Minister. There were enough raw materials available to sustain production at the time, the problem was there weren’t enough workers available to produce the weapons at a rate that Hitler wanted, and Speer expected. The burden was reduced when Speer successfully diverted a large proportion of workers from other production to armament production. The compulsory labor registration of under fifty-year-olds also helped the situation; however there were still not enough workers. The only other option was to use huge numbers of foreign workers and prisoners to continue with German industry and war production. Conditions for these workers were usual extremely poor. Often forced to live on the job, with no medical facilities and only enough food to keep them alive. In some cases conditions were so bad that nearly half of the workers died. This ‘slave-labor’ workforce was overseen by Speer himself, and it was this decision that Speer was later charged for in Nuremburg war trials.

There have been many horror stories told by workers, but one of the most terrible is those situated in the “Dora missile factory”. This factory was in charge of producing the V1, and the V2 rockets that were to be launched at London. Over 60,000 people worked at the facility in the three years it was in production, of which just fewer than 30,000 people died.

There were many more cases like this, but it was with this ruthlessness that Speer was able to keep up with the heavy demands of the German war machine. With him in charge, production of the Mark III Panzer tank required 50 per cent fewer man-hours, and worker output increased by 60 per cent. What is even more remarkable, and a testament to Speer is the way in which production was able to increase despite the heavy setbacks placed on by the war. Many factories and around Germany were destroyed by allied bombing, yet somehow he was still able to increase production year after year. From 1942, to 1944, production of tanks and aircraft was doubled, yet at the same time the amount of bombs dropped on Germany had nearly increased seven fold. The Messerschmitt (German aircraft) factory was able to produce its Me109 fighter aircraft using 25% less raw materials. Steel wastage was reduced and manufactures were able to get an extra 10-30% extra usage out of every 100,000 tones. Speer also specialized the production on fewer models. This enabled a more concentrated, and skilled workforce. Aircrafts models went from 45, to just 2. The number of trucks from 151 to just 23 and motorbike down to 26 from 150. There was an increased of over 130% in overall weapons production, and all of this was done cheaper, faster, and all under the watchful eye of Albert Speer.

At its peak, Speer’s workforce consisted of over seven million foreign laborers, 400,000 prisoners of war workers, and about 20% of the local workforce. As well as this there were over seven million workers in foreign countries whose production was controller by Speer.

This has proven to be a great point of contention among historians when assessing whether Speer was aware of the Nazi party’s intentions. Many argue Speer must have been aware of the persecution of the Jews through his close relationship with Hitler, and the fact that he used so many for slave labor in his armaments production. Others retort by saying that in 1943 when Speer became ‘aware’ of the poor working conditions he tried to improve them almost immediately. Dutch Protestant theologian Willem Visser ‘t Hooft said Speer existed in what he called a ‘twilight between knowing and not knowing’. Whatever the case, the treatment of the Jewish slave workforce was described as being ‘mass enslavement, carried out by force, fraud, and terror….subjecting them to every form of degradation, brutality and inhumanity’ by a judge at Nuremburg.

Many judgments of Speer’s impact as head of armament production are based on the Rechenshaftsbericht (account of his stewardship of the ministry). This was a report nearly 10,000 words long and contained many statistics and figures showing exactly how production had increased.
One historian, Dan ver der Dat is reluctant to believe this report as it was written by Speer himself and is the only source containing facts and figures.

Albert Speer contributed to the Nazi war machine greatly. His leadership and organization qualities allowed Germany to continue fighting for at least a year longer then what would have been possible with the old methods of production. His architecture was one that inspired many Germans, and although he disagreed with Hitler on occasions, his ability to follow his leader proved invaluable for the cause, despite defeat. He claims he was unaware of the genocide that was occurring, and the fact whether he was fully aware of what was going on is a secret that will probably never be answered.

 

[sc0tty101]

Battle of Verdun

The Battle of Verdun

The Battle of Verdun was one of the largest military engagements during World War 1. It was the longest battle of the war, and cost both sides many thousands of casualties. It was fought between the Germans and French from 21 February to 18 December 1916. Verdun exemplified the ‘war of attrition’ pursued by both sides which cost so many lives.
By the winter of 1915-16, German General Erich von Falkenhayn was convinced that the war could only be won in the west. He decided on a massive attack on a French position 'for the retention of which the French Command would b e compelled to throw in every man they have'. Once the French army had bled to death, Britain would be fighting alone on the Western Front and could be brought down by Germany's submarine blockade.
The town of Verdun and its surrounding complex of forts were chosen for this military campaign because:
- It was a menace to the main German lines of communication
- It was within a French salient
- It was a symbol of French honor.
- To prevent the Allies from launching a major offensive on the Somme.
- To break through on the Eastern Front by striking a critical blow in the west. A victory at Verdun would pave the way for a German attack on Paris. If successful this would force France and Britain out of the war leaving Germany free to dispose of Russia.

The attack commenced on 21 February with a 21-hour artillery bombardment all along the eight mile front. French intelligence had warned off the impending attack but the claims were dismissed. As a result, they were totally unprepared, and following the artillery strikes German infantry attacks had destroyed the outer ring of French defenses and were moving forward.
On 25th February, reinforcements had arrived for the French, and under the leadership of General Petain, they managed to slow the German advance with a series of counter-attacks. With French reserves arriving continuously, Pétain's men met the unceasing attacks by densely massed German formations with increasing confidence. Although Harcourt was lost to the Germans on March 22, and Malancourt a week later, the initial German drive for Verdun had failed.

German attacks continued, however, with little intermission. By April the French air force gained control of the skies over the battlefield, and this played an important role in the successful defense of the area. Small gains continued for the Germans in June.
They attacked the heights along the Meuse and took Fort Vaux on 7 June. On 23 June they almost reached the Belleville heights, the last stronghold before Verdun itself. Pétain was preparing to evacuate the east bank of the Meuse when the Allies' offensive on the Somme River was launched on 1 July, partly to relieve the French. This battle put a large strain on the Germans, and fresh troops could no longer be committed to the attack on Verdun. The fighting lessened, and General Robert Nivelle, who had succeeded Pétain as commander, prepared for a sudden and smashing blow north of Verdun.

On September 24 the French under General Charles Mangin advanced on a 6-km (4-mi) front, recapturing Douaumont and Thiaumont. With this resumption of the French offensive, the last hope of the Germans to turn the Allied line at Verdun was shattered. The French attacks persisted throughout October, and Fort Vaux was evacuated by the Germans early in November. By the end of the year the French occupied most of the positions from which they had been routed in February.
French casualties during the battle were estimated at 550,000 with German losses set at 434,000, half of the total being fatalities. The only real effect of the battle was the irrevocable wounding of both armies. No tactical or strategic advantage had been gained by either side.

 

[sc0tty101]

Describe the main features of Diem’s regime and explain why it was unable to maintain power in South Vietnam by 1963.

Ngo Dinh Diem was a strong nationalist Catholic who had many ideas to improve his country of Vietnam. His regime was unpopular among the people due to his forceful policy’s and unfair land redistributions. He was hugely biased towards Catholics and this caused much discontent in a country where 98% of its people were Buddhist. He ruled as a military dictator, using terror tactics and the strong arm of the army to implement social, economic, and military policies that affronted many Vietnamese. He was unable to maintain power due to his inability to create and maintain an effective army. He failed to conduct any meaningful land reforms and was unable at introducing any type of representative government. Finally he alienated almost every important group in South Vietnam including Buddhists, peasants, Chinese, Army and the Montagnards. All these things effectively led to his downfall where a military coup captured and killed Ngo Dinh Diem on the 1st November 1963 and took control of the government.

Diem had rigid ideas and wanted to reform South Vietnam. He had essentially been granted free reign by the Americans due to there fear of Communism spreading throughout other Asian states. As a result he quickly developed a reputation for using force rather then democratic means to provide change. In 1955, Diem used troops from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) to reverse communist land distribution, returning holdings to previous landlords. He quickly became unpopular among local villagers after they were forced into ‘Strategic Hamlets’ designed by Diem with the aim of winning back control of the villagers. Doing so however did exactly the opposite. The isolated peasants moved into Vietnamese Government built enclosures surrounded by ditches, barbed wire and spiked bamboo. Diem uprooted villagers from their lands and moved them to settlements under government or army surveillance. Many of these villagers were forcibly drafted into the ARVN which further amplified his disapproval in rural areas.

He appointed powerful position to members of his family, some of whom began even more unpopular then he was. The Ngo family included Ngo Dinh Nhu, in charge of all intelligence facilities. Ngo Dinh Can, warlord and entrepreneur. Ngo Dinh Thuc, Archbishop of Hue. Ngo Dinh Luyen, South Vietnams ambassador to Britain. Tran Le Xuan, Nhu’s wife who assumed the role of South Vietnams first lady. She became known as the Dragon Lady for her short temper and simple mindedness in government.

Diem ruled through state terror as a military dictator and took control of the army which he used to eliminate rival groups. This included the Binh Xuyhen (Crime gang in Saigon used by Bao Dai to control the city), the Buddhist group Hoa Hao as well as the Cao Dai. Doing so eliminated nearly all short terms threats to Diem, and gained him an even stronger control over the south, however this groups became disaffected armed gangs and became potential allies of the Viet Minh.

Generally, Diem’s policies between 1955 and 1959 that were designed to rid the south of communists did exactly the opposite. In many cases it increased the sympathy and popularity towards the communists as the people became to see that life may have been better under communist rule when compared to Diem’s regime. This swelled the ranks of the Southern Vietminh to even larger numbers, increasing opposition to Diem.

To combat this, in 1959 Diem passed Law 10/59. This law established military tribunals centered on finding communists in South Vietnam. These communists were referred to as Vietcong, a name which later became a common term used by American soldiers. These military tribunals quickly became known for the brutal application of Law 10/59 and were unconcerned with justice. This became just another reason for the people of South Vietnam to hate there leader and his oppressive regime.

One of the major features of Diem’s regime was the fact that it was largely centered on Catholic ideals and principles at the time in South Vietnam about 1 in 10 people were Catholic, so it was very much a minority religion. Diem and his government engaged in often vicious persecution of Buddhists. Diem’s brother Ngo Dinh Thuc, as archbishop of Hue (A major city in central Vietnam) came into particular conflict with the Buddhist monks of the area. Catholics were given the best government jobs, the top positions in the army and the best land in unfair distributions. Not only this but many Buddhists were expected to work much longer, and much harder then there Catholic counterparts.

By 1963 things were progressing from bad to worse for Diem. Discontent had spread throughout the country. Buddhist monks were revolting, some performing suicide by dousing there bodies in petrol and setting themselves on fire. There was rioting and many were shot under order from Diem. On 1st November troops moved into Saigon and within an hour they had taken control of key positions and surrounded the Palace where Diem was residing. He was asked to resign but refused. After evading the soldiers for a brief amount of time Diem and his brother Nhu were both killed by soldiers. The Diem regime was over.

Diem’s government was corrupt and rife with discrimination, ill-treatment and injustice, however, while being strongly anti-communist Ngo Dinh Diem was just as nationalistic as Ho Chi Minh. It was these reasons that the U.S supported Diem for so long and believed he was the best hope for a strong Vietnamese government able to resist the communist influence.

However, it was clearly seen from early on the Diems regime wouldn’t be the perfect solution the US had hoped for. It was undemocratic, and dependent on US strength; as seen by the formation of the ARVN. It was unable to maintain power because of its unpopularity. Diem had the support of the Catholics who had some influence in the cities; however it was the lack of support in rural areas that would hurt Diem. The many villages in and around rural South Vietnam proved to be perfect hiding spots for pro-communists, as well as training grounds for communist forces. Controlling the villagers was much more important then controlling the cities in South Vietnam as in an undeveloped country like the South many more people live in the rural areas.

Though Diem was placed as leader of Vietnam by the United States to stop the spread of Communism in the region, his corrupt government, inept public relations, and repressive techniques had the opposite result. Under his rule the number of Vietcong increased dramatically, and as a result this increased the threat of communist expansion, and created a lot of fear for the Americans. It is for these reasons that he was unable to maintain power in South Vietnam by 1963.

 

[mizz_smee]

hey everyone i lost my arab israeli dot points
could someone please tell me what they are
and i will be happy to post my notes when done
thanks
oh and i do russia (but i suck so i am no help)

 

[HaTn\'SkOoL]

Im in!

Hey I'm in.. i got notes on Russia and WW1 but i need help with Indochina plz! So Lauren if u can send ur notes it'll be highly appreciated.. THNX!

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

Totalitarian Essay

My teacher said this was excellant, so here it is! I hope it helps.

‘To what extent was Germany a totalitarian state in the period 1939-1945?’

The question of Nazi Germany as totalitarian is debatable. The regime’s structure, at an outward observation, did appear to be totalitarian, as it comprised the six essential features of a totalitarian state: a single party, a compelling ideology, the communications monopoly, the weaponry monopoly, the extensive use of terror and a centralized directed economy. However, at an inward observation, it would appear that Nazi Germany was more totalitarian in the first period of the Third Reich (1933 – 1939) then in the latter years (1939 – 1945). This was achieved through Gleicschaltung – or a process of coordination.

Historians who have debated the issue of Nazi Germany as totalitarian have been subdivided into “Internationalists” and “Structuralists”. “Structuralist” historians such as Martin Broszat and Hans Mommsen believe that to label Nazi Germany as totalitarian would indicate a focus on her outward structure rather then her internal structure\ thus it would be inappropriate to label Nazi Germany totalitarian. However, “Internationalists” historians such as Allan Bullock and Ian Kershaw believe that Hitler intended to create a totalitarian state, and succeeded. Thus it may by suggested that rather than rule Nazi Germany as totalitarian, the Nazis were infact a completely unorthodox party which led Germany into a period of a chaotic nature.

The removal of all political opponents was achieved through the enforcement of the Enabling Act of March 1933 and the suspension of the constitution. Under the Enabling Act, Hitler was granted the power to pass laws without government approval. As such, political parties were either abolished or banned. This paved the path which led to Hitler’s full control over the nation which increased at a rapid pace between1933 – 1939, but gradually declined and finally collapsed at the end of the Second World War in 1945. It is in this sense that Nazi Germany could not be classified as a complete totalitarian state during the period 1933 – 1945 as the regime experienced extensive instability.

The concept of a single, hierarchal structured party with a strong and decisive leader is an issue of much debate. Internationalists accept the fact that Hitler was at the centre of the regime, and a strong dictator: a reflection of the social, political, cultural and economic conditions in Germany. However, Structuralists believe that Hitler, while an important individual, was not a true reflection of the conditions in Germany. Nonetheless, Hitler received almost complete loyalty from Nazis and members of the public, mainly resultant of the enforcement of the Fuhrer Myth. However, during latter years, key individuals and groups began to defy Hitler, as they regarded his decisions as unrealistic and altogether threatening to Germany’s future. An example of such a person is Albert Speer who, when Hitler ordered a ‘scorched earth’ policy, obeyed the Fuhrer in the East but defied him in the West.

In relation to the party being made ubiquitous this ideal was only partially achieved. It was through the establishment of the Reich Church, Nazi schools and the Hitler Youth (plus the moderate success of the enforcement of Nazi ideology) that this was attempted. Yet the Nazis did not successfully achieve this, as various forms of opposition arose, particularly during the years of the war. Another feature of a single party is the ceaseless demands on party members and complete obedience. In the period 1933 – 1939, many party members displayed this – however, during the latter years of the Third Reich many members disobeyed Hitler, such as Albert Speer and the SS, over whom Hitler never exercised full control.

Another prominent feature of a totalitarian state is the compelling ideology of the party. Nazi ideology has been suggested to be unrealistic, as the ideas behind these were Hitler’s personal values, which did not, in all reality, stand a chance of survival in a nation with such diverse and complex ideals. The ideology focused on the concept of a ‘Volksgmeinshaft’ – a people’s community which was doomed to failure from the outset due to internal divisions resultant of Democracy collapse. Nazi ideology also focused on Hitler’s ‘Weltanschung’ or world view. There were seven prominent concepts which made up this view; nationalism, anti – Semitism, which had increased as a result of Germany’s defeat in the Great War and thus Hitler envisioned a ‘Volk’ of a pure race- the Aryan race, represented by members of the Nazi Party, Social Darwinism, which means the superiority of one people prevailing above all others through the use of struggle, or ‘War of Conquest’ with the spread of German control, ‘Lebensraum’, the idea of expansion into the East through the concept of enlarged families, the ‘Fuehrerprinzip’, an hierarchical leadership with a strong and decisive leader, democracy and the state, the idea that democracy had failed the people, incorporating the repudiation of the shameful Treaty of Versailles, and the extensive use of propaganda and communications as the way to promote Nazism. The most effective method of propaganda was the Fuehrer Myth.


Of course, the extent to which Germany may be labeled totalitarian can not be fully examined without assessing the roles of key groups such as women, youth, the SS and the SA and the army.

Part of Nazi ideology outlines the preferred roles of women. This role was based on the traditional role and summarized by the slogan ‘Children, Kitchen, Church.’ Women were greatly discouraged from joining the workforce as their role was, as seen by the Nazis, to stay at home and raise children. The Nazis rewarded women by providing extensive financial support and introducing a motherhood award system. These methods were used to encourage women to stay at home and fulfill their obligation. However, though this approach worked in most cases, some women did oppose this idea. Therefore, as totalitarian is used to describe the control of ALL aspects of society Nazi Germany was not, in this case, totalitarian. Additional to this was the recruitment of women into the workforce that took place during the years of the war, which was contradictory to Nazi ideology. Again this was met with hostility due to the fact that some women had grown accustomed to their ‘traditional’ way of life.

Hitler was well aware that the survival of the Third Reich rested a great deal with the youth. Therefore, extreme precautions were taken to ensure the capture of younger generations’ minds. The Hitler Youth had been created way back in the early 20s, but after 1936, membership was regarded as compulsory. In March 1931, the reigns of leadership were passed from the SA to Baldur von Schirach, who, through some alterations, gradually increased membership. The Hitler Youth and the female equivalent, League of German Girls, supported party activities by distributing electoral materials and participating in marches and rallies.

As an answer to the question of education, history was rewritten. Textbooks which had survived the years of the Weimar Republic were destroyed. Education was of the utmost importance in the Nazi Regime, and was thus controlled in a very strict manner, as opposed to the fairly loose manner of previous education. There was a separation of young males and females, and the education they received reflected both traditional Nazi values and their future roles within the state. The only common education both sexes received was on the importance of exercise. On education, Hitler is quoted as of saying “…With knowledge, my youth will be spoiled.”

As the most powerful and influential force in Germany, the army was able to overthrow Hitler at any given time. However, they were drawn to him, attracted by his promise to restore and rearm the army.

One of Hitler’s main aims was to win the loyalty and support of the army, thus, from the moment he was appointed chancellor, he regarded the army with a great deal of respect. The final test Hitler faced in securing the loyalty of the army was the decision that led to the Night of the Long Knives. The events that took place on this historical night were the result of a conflict of interests between the army and the SA. Ernst Rohm, the leader of the SA, believed that the SA should be made the sole police force, and that the army should be incorporated at a lower rank. This did not rest well with the army, who appealed to Hitler, expressing their concern. As a result of this, Hitler ordered the SS to eliminate the SA leadership. Thus, in the middle of 1934, Rohm was killed, along with the rest of the SA leadership. However, it is much debatable as to whether one could incorporate Germany’s police force into the correct definition of a totalitarian state. Though the weapon monopoly may have been compelling, the numbers of the secret police did not match that of the German population.



The manipulation of communications cam under the leadership of Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda and Enlightment. The strongest piece of propaganda which Goebbels produced was the Fuehrer Myth. This was the portrayal of Hitler as a strong, decisive leader chosen to lead the German people. Hitler in reality was not decisive, and this partly contributed to Germany’s defeat in the War. In the early years of the Reich this propaganda technique was used purposely as a means of gaining support. Historian Ian Kershaw says “…Without the degree of popular booking which Hitler was able to command the drive, dynamism and momentum of Nazi rule could hardly have been sustained.” Kershaw and many other Internationalists believed that Hitler’s popularity was derived from the enforcement of this myth, therefore indicating that Hitler was not a decisive leader.

A strong use of terror, the establishment of a secret police which effectively controls the whole state is yet another integral feature of a totalitarian state. This police force was made up of the SS, SA, the army, and later the Gestapo. One of the major duties of the secret police was the extermination of the Jews. An example of this activity is what is known as the Night of Broken Glass. On this historical night, the 9th November, 1938, the SA and the SS destroyed a great deal of Jewish property and burned many Jewish synagogues in retaliation of the murder of a Nazi politician. This act of aggression is known as the most violent attack against the Jewish community before the war. Consequential to this, it was the Jewish community who was held responsible for the destruction and thus was forced to pay for the repairs.

The SS acted as a ruthless police force, annihilating internal opponents to the Nazi regime. Initially a co – operation with the brutal SA, Hitler rewarded the honorable SS with complete independence after the elimination of the SA leadership in 1934. In their book “Anatomy of the SS State”, historians H. Krausnick and M. Broszat define the role of the SS: “…To discover the enemies of the state, to watch them and render them…free to use every means suited to achieve the required end…” This quote confirms what many historians and history books say about the SS: that they are a law unto themselves.

Thus, in relation to an effective secret police, Nazi Germany could be considered to be totalitarian to a very large extent.

The final feature of a totalitarian state, a centrally directed economy, was only inches from becoming full controlled. This was achieved through a number of steps. The first of these was the abolition of trade unions in May 1933, and the replacement by the German Labor Front under the leadership of Robert Ley. In 1934, Hjalmar Schact was appointed Minister for Economics, and his impressive financial skills were directed at Germany’s economic recovery from the harsh effects of the Depression. His polices helped to strengthen Nazi support and strengthen the German economy. However, despite the positive impacts he imposed upon the economy, Schact resigned in 1937. During the period 1936 – 1939, all economy transactions served the Nazi purpose, thus placing the regime at the centre of all inductrialisations all the while creating a stronger Nazi image to the rest of the world. During the early years of the war as well economic transactions were focused on the war effort, thus narrowing in on the survival of Nazism. However, from 1943, with Speer at the core, economic transactions began to focus on Germany’s survival after the war. Therefore, during the period 1933 – 1945, the economy was not solely directed at Nazism aim. Also, the economy was not centrally controlled. A main reason for this was because Big Businesses were allowed to continue, and remain in private hands, as long as it served the needs of the state.

Conclusively it can thus be seen that during the early period of the Third Reich Nazi Germany was easily considered to be relatively totalitarian – a process achieved by Gleicschaltung – or a process of coordination. The process was carried out to a large extent through the manipulation of the legal system. However, the latter years were ones of instability and which the Nazi grip loosened and gradually demised. Therefore, Nazi Germany was totalitarian to a great extent before the regime collapsed, defeated by the war, and periodic opposition.

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

Arab - Israeli

The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm

 2nd August Israeli troops invaded Kuwait
 Saddam Hussein annexed the Gulf Kingdom
 Saddam controlled 30% of the world’s oil reserves

Course of the war

 29th November United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 678 settling 15th January 1991 as a deadline for Iraq to begin withdrawing from Kuwait.
 Negotiations between the United States and Iraq broke down in the last week of December and the first week of January.
 17th January, 1991 – massive air attack on Bagdad
 War lasted 43 days
 Bombing destroyed about 80% of Iraq’s oil capacity, most of the transport, telecommunications and power generating infrastructure
 Huessin set fire to oil fields in Kuwait

The Gulf War and its Effects

1. Saddam Huessin tried to link the occupation of Kuwait by Iraq with the occupation of Palestinian territory
2. Saddam Huessin tried to widen the war by firing missiles into Israel. The USA successfully persuaded Israel not to retaliate.
3. The PLO announced support for Iraq. This was an error of judgment by Yassar Arfrat.
4. The Americans refused to continue contact with the PLO after they declared support for Iraq. * Israel made increased efforts to crush the Intifada and Israel attitudes hardened towards the PLO.


Post 1973 and changing Influences on Israel, Palestine and the Arab World

 Superpower involvement increased
 Political parties were formed
 More willing to negotiate
 Likud party established
 Seeing peace as a better option than arms
 Rise of Israeli settle movement
 Islamic fundamentalists arose
 PLO polices were established
 Increased threat of terrorism
 Exilation of Labour party
 Election of Menachem Bacon
 Change in PLO policies
 Move away from acquiring ALL or the pre – 1948 Palestinians

The Camp David Accords

Part 1

 Negotiations among Egypt, Jordan, Israel and representatives of the Palestinian people to settle the question of the West Bank and Gaza Strip
 Part 1 and 2 were signed on the 17th September 1978
 5 year period of autonomy to be granted to the West Bank and Gaza Strip
 Israel military and civilian administration was to be withdrawn after a self – governing body was freely elected
 Government of Jordan was to be invited to join negotiations for transitional arrangement
 Negotiates were to take place no later then 3rd year of the 5 year period to determine the final status of the W.B and G.S

Part 2

 Peace agreement to be negotiated and signed within three months
 Israel withdrew from the Sinai over 3 years
 Israeli ships were to be allowed free passage through the Suez Canal.
 UN would oversee provisions of the accords so as to satisfy both sides
 Ignored Jerusalem, future of Golan Heights and the Palestinian people
 A peace treaty signed by Egypt and Israel
 Egypt recognized Israel
 Egypt and Israel rejected the use of force
 Egypt and Israel abolished economic boycotts
 Right of navigation of water ways was respected.

 

[LaurenB]

Hey Hebz here are my notes pretty long
INDOCHINA
(1)The significance of the French defeat at the battle of Dien Bien Phu; (2) the significance of the Geneva Peace agreement for Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos; (3) Significance and consequences of the failure to hold free elections in Vietnam in 1956.
The French were demoralised and defeated
Led to the Peace conference in Geneva
Meant there was a temporary peace in Indochina
Communists and natives seen as a real threat for the first time
Major Points: France to grant independence to Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam
Vietnam split temporarily in half along 17th parallel
Strip of land between the two areas a demilitarised zone and no foreign bases were allowed within the area of Indochina
Free and democratic elections to be held in 1956
Vietnam: 80000 communist refugees move North and 100s of 100s Catholics & Buddhist move south
Eisenhower: I have never talked to a person knowledgeable of Indochina affairs who did not agree that had elections been held at the time of fighting, possibly 80% of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State Bao-Dai
Ngo Dinh Diem became president of the South, an ardent Nationalist.
Cambodia: Accords reiterated independence king Norodom Sihanouk had gained in 1953
Laos: Gained independence in 1954 but accords did not resolve which of the rival groups (Monarchy vs. Communist) would take over. French wanted power to the elite yet the Pathet Lao had more control
Neither Americans nor South Vietnamese signed the agreement yet US spokesman said they “would take a serious view of any violation of an agreed armistice”.
Diem refused to hold election saying the communists would not allow free elections to take place in the north
War broke out; North against South- the latter supported by the US
Fought with the intention to stop communism
Produced huge death and casualty rates, brutal atrocities, widespread destruction of property and contamination of farmland as well as thousands of refugees
Communist government finally emerge victorious struggling to make modern countries from the economic, environmental and social havoc produced from 20 years of war.

(2) Sources, nature and development of the conflict in Vietnam from 1960•
Sources: *North wanted a united Vietnam *No elections held *N&S division ideology
*1960: formation NLF *Backing of South by USA *Agroville program → strategic Hamlets
*Diem’s self-absorption *Presence of Viet Cong in South *Escalating pattern attack/reprisal/attack
* ‘61American troops * Discontent with Diem * Military attempts to get rid of Diem
Nature: * Diem refused to hold elections which infuriated the North
* Diem used American money for himself and his pro-Catholic policies
* Communist North vs. Non Communist South = DISCONTENT
* US gave money and support to South in effort to help economy, however it was wasted
*The Viet Cong being in the South caused major discontent and upheaval
* Strategic Hamlets set up to try and rid towns of VC however they were easily and happily infiltrated
* National Liberation Front: Non-communists could join which increased momentum.
Development:
□ 1960 Formation NLF (Military and Political propaganda)
□ Intensification of Guerrilla warfare □ anti-guerrilla activities i.e. Defoliants
□ Buddhist vs. Diem □ Helicopters, Strategic Hamlets and increased personnel
□1962 Battle Ap Bac – 1st major conflict between ARVN and VC
□ Ambassador Gen. Maxwell Taylor, Commander in Chief Gen. William Westmoreland (Both hawks)
□Calls for more US personnel and Ground forces
□ 1963 – 16732 US military servicemen in SV
□ 1964 – US covert operations against the North i.e. sabotage, commando raids
□ 10 000 NV cadres in the south (political support – explaining plight of the Communists, building support) VC numbers over 180 000
□ COSVN – Central Office for South Vietnam – control Viet Cong operations in the South
□ April 1st NV army Units sent South
□ By June US have plans for bombing raids just need some sort of catalyst
□ Gulf of Tonkin Incident in August. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution → reprisal for attack→US bombing
□ NOV. Attack by VC on Bien Hoa, VC attacks on Mekong Delta
□ Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Flaming Dart

(3) The concepts of ‘containment’ and the ‘domino theory’ as applied to Vietnam and their impact on US policy making.
‘Containment’: David Mozingo:"Containment’s central objective [is to establish] a hard political and military line [between the US and communist sphere of influence and the US].
‘Domino Theory’: The idea that communism would come down through Asia and take countries completely to the point of Australia, NZ and eventually America.
The Truman Doctrine: a response to the growing threat of Communism. Said the US would support “free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure” It effectively committed the US to role of protector for smaller endangered nations from communism.
President Eisenhower first enunciated the domino theory April ’55 “you have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly”
JFK called Vietnam the “Cornerstone of the free world in South East Asia” to show that this was supposedly the area blocking communism from infiltrating countries such as Thailand, India, Japan, Philippines, Laos and Cambodia.
JFK saw Vietnam as America’s responsibility because they were a leading factor in the South’s conception using the analogy of parents or godparents to describe their relationship
Kolko: after 1945 America was seeking to create an integrated, essentially capitalist world framework out of the chaos of WWII. It was not trying to defend its own state against a threat but to create a controllable world order elsewhere.
The policy from ’45 to ’70 was to stop the USSR and China from getting to close to Vietnam, retard the communist block, get rid of communist parties in free world countries and make the US look as attractive as possible.
The Rollback policy was to develop a strong, stable and constitutional gov to assert attractive conditions in contrast to communism, work towards weakening of comm.s in peaceful reunification of a free and independent Vietnam under anti-comm. Leadership, hold elections only when free Vietnam asserted, assist South to build up indigenous army etc.

(4) The nature of political, social, economic and military policies within South and North Vietnam and their consequences.
South North
Political
1954 Bao Dai is emperor Ngo Dinh Diem becomes President in an Oligarchy, authoritarian, repressive rule. He is an ardent nationalist July ’55 Diem announces referendum to be held to determine if people want Bao Dai to return or keep him as president. It was almost certainly rigged, but Diem announces himself as the President of the Republic of Vietnam Denunciation campaign. Encouraged peasants to denounce to authorities those who fought for the French and VM sympathisers. They killed and imprisoned these people and drove people to communism. 1956 a movement of National Revolution run by Diem’s brother Nhu. In August a decree made it illegal to associate with Communists, 56→63 increasingly repressive and authoritarian Nov 60 army officers attempt to seize power. Diem discovered US ambassador knew and no longer trusted US or accepted requests for more democracy 63 Buddhists Launch full-scale anti-Diem protests, the Buddhist to Catholic ration 14:1 Nov 63 overthrow of Diem Gov. 1964 faced defeat as factions rivalled for supremacy North Vietnam happy for Catholics to go as they represented largest opposition to Viet Minh Relied heavily on aid from China and Russia Ho Chi Minh inspiration and figurehead of the revolution. He was loves for reasons such as the salary of leaders the same as that for the people Cadres attached to military groups to reinforce the revolutionary zeal and re-iterate reasons for the war Power resided with the 10 man Politburo (of which Giap only military leader) and the Army Ho had a policy of rapid industrialisation 1960 MLF formed as controlling Party in South Stable leadership, Ho leader for about 30 years
Social
Diem favoured the Catholics upsetting the Buddhists Censorship of Domestic press and tried to control international Strategic Hamlets →took people from their Ancestral ground Much of the countryside in the hands of the communists Nhu and wife “milked the system”(MacDonald) rode through the streets like royalty In Nov 56 an uprising, Ho sent troops 6000 deported or killed After the collectivisation and some murders Ho Chi Minh admitted “errors have been committed” Attempted to rid society of “exploiting classes” Majority of people illiterate, push to change this Macdonald: As always when the masses opt for revolution, instead of revolution, there was wholesale misery
Economic
’59 Agroville Scheme, ’62 Strategic Hamlets = discontent ’55 $322 million aid from USA ’62 50% unemployment resist US pressure to reform End ’60 45% land controlled by 2% of the population Failed to modernise industry or finance, Diem rather used money to build his own following Capitalist System Communist economy Division meant north unable to receive rice from the Mekong Delta. Famine only avoided by importation rice and flight of Catholics to the south Departing refugees stripped and dismantled anything of value Bombing had destroyed railways and bridges Had to implement massive ag and industrial reforms to rebuild the country Most Vietnam’s mineral wealth in the North Ag reforms met by ’57 NV self-sufficient in rice Co-operativisation each village shared work Aid ’61 $622 mill China, $365 SU $38 east Europe countries
Military
Factional groups opposed Diem in ’55 Diem took them on and won 1962 South Soldiers die at 500/month Content to allow US to fund equip and educate soldiers, even determine structure of ARVN Highest ranking officers chosen for political loyalty not ability Inefficiency of ARVN shown by communist resistance Success in ’62 and ’63 due to increase in US advisors by more than 10000 Ag reforms make everyone aware of class struggle. Find anyone opposing or disloyal to the communists, those who had worked for the French or didn’t show enough enthusiasm for the Viet Minh. Probably over 100000ppl killed. Relied on SU and China for equipment Leaders were political revolutionaries Ho Chi Minh Trail built for guerrilla forces Equality in Army, generals live as men do National Liberal Front 1960 Village based units, regional troops, main force

(5) The Nature and consequences of ‘infiltration’ from North into South Vietnam.
Viet Cong founded by remnants of the Viet Minh and some who returned from North
1957 – began political agitation and propaganda
Teams of the NLF would travel from town to town performing entertaining political plays
Gained confidence of the villages – promised independence and land reforms
Villages supported VC with food, taxes, donations, sanctuary, guides and fighters
Assassinations of village officials – 1961 4000/year
By 1961 – claimed to control most of countryside at night, over 2/3 by day
Encouragement of NV gov. up to 1959
1960 Ho announced formation of National Liberation Front to co-ordinate opposition to Diem. They were guided by the North
From 1959 received weapons along Ho Chi Minh trail
By mid-1964 VC launching attacks at positions only 10km from centre of Saigon. Bomb attacks in Saigon were common.
1964 North decided to increase support for VC. HCM trail built up to almost a highway.
Mid-1964 NV troops start to move down trail to build up forces (already 50000)
Nov 64 VC had 130 000 troops and increasing direction from North
Nov 2nd attacked Bien Hoa US airbase
Portrayed the Americans as foreign invaders
VC (And US) saw war as a War of Attrition, this suited the VC
Two-pronged strategy-guerrilla forces to harass the enemy & control villages; VC regular forces assisted by soldiers and NVA to make attacks against towns etc. to divert attention from anti-guerrilla activity. Fought to control people, and had control of 90% of the villages.
1965, NLF strong independent military force
North Vietnam supplied about 20% of NLF’s funds
After Tet (68) NVA took over most of the fighting
Chinese & Soviets supplied NV-passed into South along HCM trail
Cadres and political organisers important in keeping morale, motivation, co-operation
VC soldiers had everything to gain from victory; they knew what they were fighting for
Used the environment effectively – used tunnels, the jungle, bunkers below ground level
NLF set up a rival government ready to take control- based at a camp near Cambodian border
1968 –31st Jan Tet Offensive started by NLF, it was a failure militarily, but succeeded mentally.

(6) The nature and impact of growing US intervention in Indochina for both the US, the peoples of Indochina and the immediate region.
By 1964 the strategic Hamlet programme was rapidly falling apart.
The Ho Chi Minh trail went from primitive path to highway (CAMBODIA)
The North built underground barracks, workshops and storage depots as well as having anti-aircraft
In the South there were 10 changes of government after the US backed removal of Diem
July ’64 Johnson approved secret South Vietnamese naval raids against NV
August: GULF OF TONKIN incidences (against Maddox and Turner Joy). The 2nd is dubious
7th Aug Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, meant president had power to decide course of war
2nd March 1965 Operation Rolling Thunder: bombers raided North Vietnam
First American combat troops in Vietnam on 8th March 1965, by end of year numbered 200 000+
Defoliants and herbicides used to destroy jungles from 1961. They also wiped out rice fields and had long term effects on the land, people and environment
June 1965 Ky PM and Thieu Chief of State
1967 SV totally reliant on US as a million supplies a month were coming in
By 1968 500 000 American troops. Undertook Search and destroy missions (peasants offside)
The economy of South Vietnam was geared to the Americans and the society changed. Ideals of appropriate behaviour between men and women changed and there was a significant rise in the number of prostitutes.
As the war drew on the Americans began to bomb Cambodia. This led to further relations between the US and the Cambodian government and division with the people of Cambodia.
The North played on the fact that the South was having America’s help saying they were invading the country and it was not their war to fight.
Operation Junction City meant HCM trail bombed, meant Cambodia bombed, brought in Cambodia which led to the Pol Pot regime
Search and destroy missions meant peasants turned to VC as it was difficult to tell between civilians and enemy. An extreme case of this was the My Lai massacre.
As the war was Americanised ARVN took a back seat in the operations.
Impact on the total region→ Other countries brought in such as Philippines, Korea and NZ

Australia’s involvement (Not a dot point but need to know)
WHY To ensure “long term defence interests of Australia”
“Forward Defence” against communism
To ensure American involvement in the region and gain favour with the Americans
Traditional fear of Asia and communism post WWII
Concern about Australia’s isolation in Asia
Desire to have a powerful friend (Before WWII Britain after 1941 USA) ANZUS 1951 SEATO 54
Make sure America would support Australia if needed due to ANZUS and SEATO agreements
HOW 1962 – sent 30 Military advisors; 100 by 1965
1964 Pres Johnson asked Australia to increase number of advisors. Australia offered combat troops
Needed a request from SV government (in compliance with SEATO terms) Which America pressured
Request made 29th April 1965 and Menzies announced decision to send troops
WHO AND WHERE? 1962: Australian Army training Team – advisors to SV Army units
1965 1st Battalion- Royal Australian regiment attached to American Army
Aus Task Force (5th & 6th Batts) responsible Phuoc Tuy Province. Permanent base Nui Dat remain ’71
TYPES OF WARFARE – cordon and search, Civic action –WHAM, Patrols, Search and Destroy, minefields, Bomber attacks, Helicopter gunships, Naval patrols –gunfire support & blockades
Battle Long Tan: Only major battle Aussies involved in
Severely weakened Viet Cong in Phuoc Tuy
SUCCESSES AND FAILURES: Aussies well trained particularly in Guerrilla Warfare
Built up team spirit; Professional, good leaders, Disciplined
Tried not to involve civilians and did not seem to threaten Vietnamese society
1971 50 000 had served 496 killed, 2 398 wounded
Didn’t have to do much fighting but had won every battle
Cleared the enemy from vast areas of land but accomplished little of lasting value
As part of clearing operations, towns, homes destroyed, land confiscated. No compensation.

(7) The commitment of US and Australian ground troops and the social, economic, political and military impact of their involvement for Indochina.
Social
Change in the values of the people, they became more open to the Americanisation, and the way of life
The South was inundated with luxuries such as coke and clothes.
Strategic Hamlet programme reduced their cultural links with their heritage
There became a distance between the old ways of the North and American ways of the South
The bombing and defoliant created an immense refugee situation (In SOUTH!). Estimated 4million people fled the cities to live in shanty towns.
American bombing of the North promoted resistance
Economic
The South became wholly reliant on US aid, materials and troops
The herbicides and defoliants used throughout the Vietnam campaign meant a future loss of farming ground, jungle area and disease in the people (health crisis)
Black Market thrived
By 1967 a million tons of supplies were being sent in each month
Political
As the US endorsed the overthrow of the Diem government there was a subsequent stream of new leaders
Ky and Thieu became leaders of SV. Ky loved all things American.
Much corruption in SU politics. Including narcotics rackets, black market and American supplies being sold off for profit.
With the US bombing Cambodia the Pol Pot regime rose to power.
Military
The North continued to gear their economy and way of life towards war
Operation Rolling Thunder disrupted the people of the North’s way of life. By 1965 there were approximately 65 bombing raids/day. During the years of bombing the US dropped 860 000 tons of bombs, killed 52 000 civilians and lost 922 of their own planes.
Search and destroy missions alienated them from population and also promoted the use of booby traps for the North
As the US continued to Bomb the HCM trail they brought the Cambodian into the war.

(8) Tactics and strategies adopted by the North Vietnamese Army and the National Liberation Front and the South Vietnamese and American responses to these.
NLF/ NVA / VC
Guerrilla tactics/ ambush (NVA) traditional warfare
Used local population Cadres educate peasants
Ambush/booby traps Anti-Aircraft weapons → get supplies from Allies
Tunnels HCM trail supplied NLF
Homemade weapons Maximum use environment
Camouflaged as common peasants Tet Offensive

SV and American Response
Bombing the North (Rolling Thunder) Search and destroy missions
Bomb HCM trail Winning Hearts and Minds (WHAM)
Defoliants/herbicides Helicopters
Move local population (Strat Hamlets) Americanisation
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

(9) The nature, impact and significance of anti-war movements.
America
Opposition strong from beginning→resistance mainly against the draft
Although pro-war activists blamed these protests on the communists, studies showed that it was initially the moderate, middle-class, middle-aged WWII generation who were opposed to the war G Pemberton
Up to 1968 the strength of the movement on campus
1967 Vietnam Veterans against the war formed
Many middle class Americans saw the movement as dominated by radical, longhaired hippies
August 1968 at Democratic Party Convention, different parts of the anti-war movement came together. Demonstrators met with police brutality
After Tet offensive in Jan 1968 journalists and reporters turned against US involvement. Views of Government also changed.
October 69 around 50 000 people marched in Washington in the first Moratorium; 15th Nov a second held with around 250 000 protestors in Washington
US invasion of Cambodia in April 1970 sparked more demonstrations
4th May 1970 Kent State Uni demonstrators fired on by National Guard. 4 killed, 8 wounded.
This sparked nationwide protests. Over 400 Unis closed down, 100 000 protesters marched on Washington.
Martin Luther King joined on ethical grounds. He was opposed to the billions of dollars that were being spent on the war effort and also raised concerns about the disproportionately high number of African Americans who were being conscripted
Nixon was trying to regain the momentum as he implored, “To you, the great silent majority of my fellow Americans, I ask for your support” so that he could continue the war with the supposed backing of most of America
Protests by doctors, lawyers, architects and corporate executives
By end 1970 protests less and less necessary as Nixon begins to withdraw troops
Returning soldiers treated badly.
REASONS FOR CHANGE
‘Television War’ –especially 1968 Khe Sanh and Tet offensive – American public saw America was not winning the war and that it wasn’t only communists who committed atrocities
My Lai massacre stunned America →Also by fact it had been kept a secret from them
Effect on economy→inflation. Cost $2billion a month. Diverted funds from domestic problems – poverty etc.
Many families personally effected because of draft
1971 Pentagon Papers →revealed how public had been deceived and information hidden
International pressure→ feeling America was involved in an immoral war (undeclared or civil)
US invasion of Cambodia
Treatment of resisters→ 1968 Democratic Convention, Kent State
IMPACT
Difficult to know how important anti-war movement was in the end
Put pressure on Johnson and Nixon. Contributed to scale down involvement. A major issue in Nixon’s 1968 presidential campaign when he promised to end the war
Contributed to secrecy in the White house →led to Watergate
Affected treatment of Veterans
AUSTRALIA
Initially: Most uninterested
‘Government Knows Best’
By 1969 the well-organised ‘Don’t Register’ campaigns, in which leaflets were handed out en masse
Most interest among those directly involved
Universities, trade unions some churches interested
Vietnam a protest issue for students
Some saw students as protesting instead of getting a job
First anti-war banners, Hiroshima Day marches Aug ’64
No serious protests until after conscription Nov ’64 and the decision to send troops March ’65
CHANGES: Protest groups sprang up, mainly concerned with opposing conscription (YCAC, SOS, VAC)
Hoped to defeat government at next election
1966 visit to Australia by Johnson. P.M →Harold Holt “all the way with LBJ”, Violent demonstrations (police involved), divisions in society
ALP opposed to conscription and the war but up to 1966 did not want to upset Americans
1967–E.G.Whitlam leader of Labor Party developed policy of opposition to the War but still cautious
Public Opinion changing –More radical groups growing opposed to conscription and ‘US imperialism’, some supported the communist side.
1969 majority of Australians favoured bringing the troops home
Labor now attacked govts. Vietnam policy
Liberals slowly began reconsidering their position – Gorton scaling down involvement
1970 8th May first Moratorium. Idea came from America, Others in Sept. 1970 and June ‘71
McMahon govt withdrew more troops but wouldn’t end conscription
1972 ALP won election, abolished national service, recalled remaining troops – Embassy maintained in Saigon, established diplomatic links with NV in 1973
REASONS FOR CHANGE
More people became involved when conscription was introduced – and there was a possibility of them being sent overseas. YCAC SOS
Some people turned against the war because they saw the end of the war leading to the end of conscription
Some saw Vietnam as a mistake- thought America could not win – especially after Tet
Some objected on moral grounds – saw it as an unjust war
Impact of television coverage –especially Khe Sanh, Tet and My Lai
Shift in public opinion similar to that in America
Official treatment of draft resisters and police methods against demonstrators made some more opposed to the war and conscription
Change in Public opinion led to strengthening of ALP opposition and Liberal Gov.s decision to scale down the war effort (Change in US gov.s policy more influential on Liberal’s policy)
IMPACT
Noticeable change in public opinion from 1967 onwards had some influence both on Gov.s policies and the policies of Labor opposition. Labour’s election campaign in 1969 attacked the Liberal governments policy on Vietnam – reduced the govt.s majority in election
Liberals in 1970 stopped replacing troops who returned home from Vietnam
Highlighted issues, made people think seriously about Vietnam
Not the only factor that led to Australia’s withdrawal.

(10) Regional and global impact of the spread of the war from Vietnam to Cambodia
SHORT HISTORY
1941 Sihanouk King. Gained independence from French in 1953
1955 abdicated as King entered politics; won and became head of state
Neutral foreign policy – tried to avoid the Vietnam War. Good relation with US and China
Up to 1963 – aid from US and communist countries
After ’63 (assassination Diem) Sihanouk ordered US out
Saw a need to stay on good terms with Communists-thought they would win in Vietnam. Developed closer links with China. Wanted protection if Vietnam became too powerful
Started rebuilding relation with US
Lon Nol overthrew Sihanouk while Sihanouk in Beijing. He went on to form National United Front.
Khmer Republic set up under Lon Nol in October 1970 but controlled very little of Cambodia
Lon Nol not a good leader, government corrupt, inefficient, relied on USA, unpopular

Spread through: Ho Chi Minh Trail, weapons brought through Sihanoukville, NLF bases in Cambodia
Operation Menu: US bombing of Cambodia 1969
Meant Viet Communists driven further into Cambodia
Many Cambodians turned to Communism
Added to Sihanouk’s problems – instability of his regime
1970: US and ARVN troops invade Cambodia
This added to the unpopularity of Lon Nol Gov.
Sihanouk became increasingly involved with the Khmer Rouge
Increasing involvement of North Vietnamese communists with Khmer Rouge
Increased support of population for communists – led to rise of Pol Pot
Lon Nol fighting KR and NVA
NV becoming more overt in their operations – moving closer to the border
NV increasing hold in Laos
Refugees going to Phnom Penh and France (1/3 population)
Civil war –10% population killed; 1/3 rural population refugees; social order in chaos; economy devastated
US invasion provided propaganda for KR
Industry damaged, debt, exports cut, 40% roads destroyed; 1.3 bridges
Increased military spending a strain on economy (more than double annual revenue)
Growing dependence on US aid
Withdrawal of US from Vietnam and signing of Peace Agreement led to deterioration Lon Nol Gov.
Also a split between KR and NV communists
Lon Nol made 2 offensives against Vietnamese 70, 71. North Vietnamese cut them to pieces.
1973 8th Feb –15th Aug – Carpet Bombing
Postponed Communist victory but hardened their will
By August ’73 539 000 tonnes bombs had been dropped on Cambodia
Most of Rice crops destroyed- starvation threatened
Collapse Agricultural and traditional lifestyle
2 million refugees in Phnom Penh
Rampant inflation
Loss of life; destruction property
Drove more into revolutionary ranks of KR
KR blamed the Vietnamese
KR controlled 2/3 of the country
KIERNAN “In the ashes of rural Cambodia arose a communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) regime led by Pol Pot” The CPK “profited greatly from US bombings”.
GLOBAL IMPACT – China became interested in gaining influence through the KR
In the US- the invasion in 1970 sparked demonstrations – led to Kent State Killings
US Congress objected to Nixon’s decision to invade Cambodia – tried to limit the President’s power –Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repealed
1973 – Operation Menu added to demands to impeach Nixon
USSR and China kept supplying NV
Gavin McCormick “The Kampuchean question is shrouded in a dense fog of prejudices, distortion, propaganda and half truth”
Elizabeth Becker “places partial responsibility on America for the Cambodian tragedy”
Puddington: “Major difference between Cambodian Communism and more traditional systems was the stress on agriculture”

(11) Reasons for US withdrawal and the eventual defeat of South Vietnamese forces.
Tet was a psychological upset for the Americans. Particularly at home
1968 the first official talks between US and NV took place in Paris
Johnson refused to run for President again (said this on TV)
Nixon elected on his slogan ‘Peace with honour’
Nixon brought in policy of Vietnamisation “The nation’s objective should be to help the South Vietnamese fight the war and not fight it for them” – Nixon
Kissinger had to convince Tho that the ‘Madman theory’ was real “I want the North Vietnamese to believe I might do anything” - Nixon
Pressure from home to end the war
Media influence
Watergate
The war seemed for all intents and purposes, unwinnable
Pentagon Papers (basically the defence department’s history of US involvement in the war 45-58)
Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho held meetings from ’69 by Oct. 72 they reached an agreement. US forces were to leave the Vietnam 60 days after cease-fire
To improve bargaining with the North the US upped its bombing raids. Nixon also regained diplomatic ties with the Chinese and USSR
Meant return of US prisoners of war
27 January 1973 the Peace settlement was signed in Paris

REASONS FOR DEFEAT
From 1973 to 75 the morale of the ARVN dropped, lack of regular payments led to desertion on a large scale
The North were allowed to have 150 000 troops remain in SV
The ARVN had relied on US transport, intelligence and troops for many years
7th November ’73 Congress passed War Powers Act
‘On the job’ training quickly introduced; meant many of the soldiers assumed responsibility for technical tasks beyond their training
No more Air-support
SV not strong enough economically, politically, militarily + low moral (NV opposite)
Weren’t involved in Peace negotiations and terms favoured NV
Strength NV; support from USSR, China
Thieu warned Nixon about the treaty that his concessions left the Republic of Vietnam “totally vulnerable to a massive attack in the future. Nixon replied “If South Vietnam did not cooperate, then Washington would continue to deal with Hanoi at Saigon’s expense”
Withdrawal of US troops meant a profound negative impact on South Vietnam economy. This meant that local industry crumbled.
Us defence budget was progressively reduced, particularly when Nixon left White House
Gerald Ford was powerless against the Congress and US budget in 1975 was 2/3 of expected
Henry Kissinger: “There were two losers after Watergate; Nixon and South Vietnam”
30th March 1975 NV troops attacked provincial city of Ban Me Thuot in SV’s central Highlands. Within 48 hours the ARVN broke and retreated. Within 2 weeks 10 SV provinces fell as ARVN tried to regroup
The ARVN were unable to formulate a counterattack. The Army divisions were tied to their provinces and SV leader did not consider a multi-provincial attack.
US bombers did not return
Saigon surrendered 30th April 1975

(12) The aims, nature and impact of Pol Pot’s regime over Democratic Kampuchea and the reasons form the invasion by Vietnam.
A SHORT HISTORY
Early Communist groups small, repressed
Communist Party CPK founded in 1951
1965 Sihanouk allowed Vietnamese to set up Communist bases in Cambodia and bring supplies trough Sihanoukville
Lon Nol – PM –repressed peasants and workers. Increased support for communists
Nixon’s bombing of Cambodia (69) increased numbers and forced communists deeper into Cambodia
1970 estimated 40 000 Vietnamese Communists in Cambodia
Protests against Vietnamese grew in Cambodia
Sihanouk overthrown. Formed National United Front –to fight as Guerrillas support for KR
Lon Nol ordered Vietnamese Communists to leave Cambodia within 48 hours
Communists fought back – took over areas giving access to Vietnam
US invasion of Cam 1970, forced Communists deeper into Cam; increased support among peasants
Civil War (KR with NV support)
KR victory.
AIMS
Nationalistic-keep out any foreign help or influence –maintain own sovereignty
Overthrow the existing leadership with violence
Independence and self-reliance
“National construction”–build a “prosperous country with an advanced agriculture and industry”(Pol Pot). Faced with chaos and destruction
Solve food problem
Pol Pot: “More than 90%” of the Khmer people would welcome collectivisation
Eight points: 1) Evacuate people from all towns 2) abolish markets 3) Abolish Lon Nol regime currency that had been printed 4) defrock all Buddhist monks and put them to work growing rice 5) Execute all leaders of Lon Nol regime beginning with top leaders 6) Establish high level co-operatives throughout the country with communal eating 7) Expel the entire Vietnamese minority population 8) Dispatch troops to the borders, particularly the Vietnamese border.
Establish Agrarian communism
Reduce everyone to same status
Do away with “all vestiges of the past” –new phase in Cambodian history
The poor to be masters of the country
Transform the country at once
Puddington: “The Khmer Rouge took ideology…with the utmost seriousness” “Communist dogma became a lethal weapon, supplying justification”
NATURE OF DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA
Closed Kampuchea off except for China
Declared 1975 the year zero
Evacuated cities and towns with supposed reason the US bombing. Real reason: Cities = opposition
People transferred to the countryside
Forced to plant rice, dig canals and perform agricultural tasks on collective farms
Executed thousands –civil servants, officers of Lon Nol’s forces
Banned money, postal services, markets, schools, books, religion
Destroyed Buddhist temples
No leisure or laughter allowed
Restrictions on clothing and adornments
Secrecy –orders given in name of an anonymous body Angkar Loeu (the higher organisation)
Fear, arrest, interrogation, spies, disappearances, re-education
Divided countryside into 7 zones. Meant there was no consistency of Admin through country, General leadership not in control of entire nation, Eastern zone better treated by leadership (just).
Population equitably redistributed
Agrarian based economy –peasants and workers
Lack of experience
Shortages of seed, tools, livestock etc.
Food production top priority
No schools or universities –no formal education
Western medicine banned
New People – from the cities. They were treated badly and unused to labour
Sihanouk: “Young recruits began hardening their hearts and minds by killing cats and dogs and other edible animals with clubs and bayonets”
Re-education camps, execution dissenters, religious persecution and transformation of agricultural work into a form of prison-camp labour.
Puddington “Those who had been industrial workers in the old society were perceived not as part of the revolutionary vanguard but as urban exploiters who enriched themselves off the sweat of the peasantry”
“Even more insidious was the Khmer Rouge effort to destroy the family and to regulate sexual relations, marriage, and the raising of children”
“Enemies” executed; purges; death for minor criticisms; death of “Internal enemies” –other communists –especially pro-Vietnamese communists; torture.
1976 –new constitution
1976-79 Sihanouk under house arrest in Phnom Penh
1977 Pol Pot totally in control
IMPACT
Variations fro area to area
Kiernan “Went on to kill or starve to death over a million Cambodians from 1975-79”
Widespread malnutrition
Tens of Thousands died from famine or disease
No western medicines to control diseases like malaria
Severe deterioration in standard of living
Death toll unknown, but could be 1-3 million (pop. Declined from 7million to 5.8 million according to one estimate)
Many executed but most died from hunger or disease
Enemies executed – supporters of the Lon Nol regime –Army officers, high-ranking civil servants, and teachers
Thousands of party members arrested (76-77)
1975-78 14 449 arrested and sent to Tuol Sleng prison
KR failed to achieve “economic miracle”
Deterioration of relationship with Vietnam- led to third Indochina War and overthrow Khmer Rouge
REASONS FOR INVASION BY VIETNAM
Response to repeated attacks by DK on Vietnam
Rescue of Kampuchea from Pol Pot
Tensions grew between Kampuchea, Vietnam and China. China supported Kampuchea
Vietnam was opposed to the independence of the Khmer rouge
1975 Pol Pot prepared to invade Vietnam and regain South Vietnam. There was an increase in Border raids and brutality
Vietnam had a population of 53 million, Kampuchea 7 million-Pol Pot’s attitude an example of the regime’s strident Nationalism
Vietnam did not respond until October 77-then counter-attacked but immediately withdrew
KR continued attacks
Chandler: “Pol Pot’s anxiety increased in July when Vietnam signed a treaty of friendship with Laos”
A second Vietnamese attack Dec 77 –withdrew
Vietnamese proposed a cease fire- a 5km zone either side of the border-talks to draw up treaty-international supervision. Copy sent to UN
KR response was continued attacks –March, April 1978
May 78 China sent a ship to Vietnam to collect Chinese who wanted to leave.
June 1978 –China cut all aid to Vietnam
End of 1978 Vietnam and USSR vs. Democratic Kampuchea and China
Dec ’78 in Hanoi –Set up United Front for National Salvation of Kampuchea –led by former KR Heng Samrin who had fled during the purges of 1977
Dec 28th 120 000 strong Vietnamese force –armour, air support –invaded Kampuchea
KR disorganised
Jan 6th Pol Pot fled Phnom Penh –went to western Cambodia
Sihanouk was released and went to Beijing
The Vietnamese entered Phnom Penh Jan 7th 1979
Jan 10th they announced the People’s Republic of Kampuchea –Heng Samrin President Hun Sen PM
By October most of the country was in the hands of the United Front
Khmer Rouge in the jungles on the Thai border
Vietnamese forces did not withdraw

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

Germany

Political, Economic and Social Problems - 1918 - 23

German people lost faith - only increased by democracy
Economy battered and food scarce
Gap between the rich and the poor widened
Division between classes increased
Currency lost 3/ 4 of it's value
Bitter resentment was felt towards thos runing the black market
White collar workers experienced an increase in living costs
Strikes were frequent
US President Wilson insisted that peace could only be discussed between dmocracies --? Germany became a democracy; "born with a hole in it's heart" - forced to be associated with the resented Treaty of Versallies - "Diktat"
"War Guilt Clause" - Germany was to accept all the blame for the way and pay reparations to fund the rebuilding of France- through money and industy - thus som of German citizens were objected to the Weimar Republic
Political partis which supported democracy --> Social Democratic Party (SDP) threatened to withdraw support from the govenment unless the Kaiser abdicated --> Kaiser did so on 9th November 1918
Signing or armistice led to a violent class struggle. January 1919: Spartacists - the Communist Party (KPD) rejected any form of democracy and rushed fo a working class revolution --> leaders were murdered, causing a permanent split in the working class polical movement
Establishment of terrorist group, FREIKORPS - group of anti - communist ment - terrorise the Spartacists and ended November Revoluction
"STAB IN THE BACK legend (Dolchstosslegende) - belief that German army had not been defeated in the war but betrayed --> sense of hopelessness
Weimar constitution- propotional representation (Article 22) --> encouraged the establishment of many minor parties, making it difficult to form strong government. Article 48 - "In the event that public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered, the Reich President may take the measures necessary for their restoration, intervening, if necessary, with the aid of armed forces" --> extensive power to the President.
1920: Kapp Putsch- attempt by a Prussian official to seize power, supported by General bon Lutwitz, commander of the FREIKORPS. Government fled Berlin - no opposition

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

can someone please help me with the fourth KF of Arab-Israeli please?

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

The Camp David Accords

Part 1

 Negotiations among Egypt, Jordan, Israel and representatives of the Palestinian people to settle the question of the West Bank and Gaza Strip
 Part 1 and 2 were signed on the 17th September 1978
 5 year period of autonomy to be granted to the West Bank and Gaza Strip
 Israel military and civilian administration was to be withdrawn after a self – governing body was freely elected
 Government of Jordan was to be invited to join negotiations for transitional arrangement
 Negotiates were to take place no later then 3rd year of the 5 year period to determine the final status of the W.B and G.S

Part 2

 Peace agreement to be negotiated and signed within three months
 Israel withdrew from the Sinai over 3 years
 Israeli ships were to be allowed free passage through the Suez Canal.
 UN would oversee provisions of the accords so as to satisfy both sides
 Ignored Jerusalem, future of Golan Heights and the Palestinian people
 A peace treaty signed by Egypt and Israel
 Egypt recognized Israel
 Egypt and Israel rejected the use of force
 Egypt and Israel abolished economic boycotts
 Right of navigation of water ways was respected.

What opposition arose within Israel and amongst the Arab states to the Camp David Accords?
Ultimate Betrayal of Egypt
Expelled Egypt from Arab League which had been established by Nassar

Arab world - General points

 President Sadat was seen in the Arab world as ‘selling out’ the Palestinians for the return of the Sinai
 Accords did not extend to either Syria or Jordan
 Israeli occupation of the Occupied Territories continued
 The Camp David Accords did not mention the Islamic status of Jerusalem
 The Arab world saw it as a separate peace between Egypt and Israel

Arab world –Specific Points

1a. Syria and the PLO labeled Sadat’s actions as ‘treason’
b. Syria did not regain the Golan Heights
c. the Palestinian question was still unresolved
d. the PLO believed the autonomy plan legitimized the occupation and oppression of the Palestinian people – Sadat approved. The Accords did not call for an independent Palestinian state and omitted reference to Palestinian self – determination
2. Jordan could not join the Palestinian people without at least tacit approval from Syria. Jordan and Syria shared a joint military command; Syria could have caused grave economic problems in Jordan by closing its border.
3. Saudi Arabia was angered by Syria’s actions partly because they were not consulted in advance and partly because they feared a rift between the Arab states.

Israeli Opposition

 Hard line Israelis opposed any conciliation or compromise on any issue with the Arabs
 Withdrawal from the Sinai was seen as threatening to Israel security
 Similarly any change in status of the Occupied Territories would be seen as removing Israel’s secure borders.

 

[Christie35]

I have essays on Germany and Arab Israeli- PM me with your address if you want any

 

[em_516]

to all the people who've just posted notes on WW1, Germany and Indochina..

THANK YOU!!!

i've basically completed my notes..but they've just reassured me a little more that i'm heading in the right direction..my history teacher's crap

 

[milo87]

hey i did WW1 Germany and Arab-irael, i did alright in my trials can i help anyone???

 

[danie]

I would like to say a big thank you to those who have posted ww1 notes and Trotsky notes. If anyone is interested I've got some historian's views on reasons for allied victory (You may probably have them all):

B. Liddel Hart:

"Moral impression, as ever in war was decisive."

"Victory was a cumilative effect, to which all weapons - military, economic and psychological - contributed."

"[Victory due to the] utilization and combination of all the resources of a modern nation."

(not a quote): Liddel Hart believes the victory of the Allies was a collective effort of all the Allies and each's ability to utilizie their resources and outmanouver the Germans. Were the Allies to act as individual nations, they would not have succeeded.

J. Terrain (not a quote):
Believes that while the Royal Navy did not win the war, the war could not have been won without it - in reference to the blockade.

J. Keegan (not a quote):

Keegan believes that the First World War was won by attrition, the attempt to weaken the opposition through a severe breakdown of their immediate human resources i.e. manpower (The Army) seen in such battles as Verdun and Somme.

~ Can't find some of my other historian's views at the mo. for the other dots points.

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

can i please get some help with germany and arab-israeli please pm me

 

[mcstraw]

yo,

i can help out too.
i study, WW1 (like all of us), GERMANY, LENI and conflict in the pacific.
i am currently looking for notes on the role of the conservative parties and elites in the political process of Germany up until 1933
and how they contributed to the fall of democracy if anyone has any notes i would love it to say the least!
cheers.

 

[Modern Hot Chic]

who has done an essay on 'to what extent was hitler's rise to power a result of weimar weakness'?
who exactly is ready for this exam?

 

[nopeppermint]

hey!

MASSIVE THANKYOU to everyone who posted their WWI and Russia notes... anyone doing UNITED NATIONS AS PEACEKEEPER? =( i'm totally stuffed for it. i basically need rescuing for all of the dot points except the league of nations. i'm doing congo and bosnia crises.

HELP!